Choline Benefits, Side Effects, Sources & Foods

Choline is an essential nutrient that is necessary for brain health, intelligence, and synaptic plasticity.

It is used in your brain both as a precursor to Acetylcholine – a neurotransmitter chiefly important for memory – and as a component in the maintenance of healthy cell membranes.

We derive choline from certain foods in our diet, but an estimated 90% of the population does not get the recommended amount per day.

A choline deficiency can greatly impair your memory and reasoning functions, make it harder to focus, and even affect your mood.

Supplements such as Alpha GPC and Citicoline are excellent sources of this nutrient and may improve your memory, learning, logical thinking, and concentration abilities.

Choline intake is especially important later in life when lower Acetylcholine production can precipitate cognitive decline, senile dementia, and even Alzheimer’s.

Choline

Cholinergic Supplement

Memory

Brain Health

Cognition

How It Works:

• Supports memory and synaptic plasticity
• Raises acetylcholine levels
• Promotes brain health and focus

Dosage:

Between 250 - 1,000 mg per day

Safety:

Rated Likely Safe

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What is Choline?

Choline (2-hydroxy-N,N,N-trimethyl-ethanaminium) is a water soluble nutrient that is closely related to the B complex of Vitamins.

While your body naturally makes a small amount of this compound, we require external sources from our diet and supplements in order to meet our daily needs.

This essential nutrient is used in our liver to prevent the build-up of fat, but its most important role is in contributing to certain brain systems.

Choline is used to develop and maintain health brain cells, especially by improving the signaling capacity, structural integrity, and fluidity of neuronal membranes.

According to the Natural Medicines database, Choline is used for, “liver disease including chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis, hypercholesterolemia, depression, memory loss, Alzheimer’s disease and dementia, and schizophrenia … body building, delaying fatigue in endurance sports, preventing neural tube defects, preventing cancer, Huntington’s chorea, Tourette’s disease, cerebellar ataxia, complex partial seizures, asthma, and as a supplement in infant formulas.”

It has been found that Choline needs are especially high for babies developing in the womb when an estimated 50,000 neurons per second are being formed.

One study in animal subjects found that pregnant mothers who were given greater amounts of Choline had offspring with higher IQs than their counterparts with lower intakes.

The Role of Acetylcholine

Another key responsibility of Choline is in promoting cholinergic activity through the synthesis of Acetylcholine.

In your brain there are an estimated 86,000,000,000 neurons and they all communicate predominantly through the transmission of various chemical signalers called neurotransmitters.

Acetylcholine is one of the neurotransmitters most involved in processes related to memory formation, retention, recall, mathematical and verbal reasoning, planning, and focus.

It is created in your brain when an acetate molecule combines with a choline molecule, but if you do not have enough choline in your system this can result in Acetylcholine deficiency.

When you have high levels of Acetylcholine available in your neurons, you may feel like your thoughts are clearer and that your speed of cognition is increased.

Lower levels may be associated with inattention, difficulty remembering new information and recalling stored memories, diminished mental energy, and the characteristic sensation of “brain fog”.

This neurochemical is also connected to the plasticity of your brain which measures how easily your neurons can form new connections. Memories are believed to be stored when a new connection (called a synapse) is created between two neurons through a process known as Long Term Potentiation.

However, as we age our brains become less plastic and fewer of these new connections are formed – a change which is typically foretold by less Acetylcholine activity. This is particularly noticeable in elderly individuals with Alzheimer’s where Acetylcholine levels are extremely low.

In fact, most of the medications for Alzheimer’s work on the cholinergic system and are aimed at trying to increase stimulation of the Acetylcholine receptors on your neurons.

Consider that 10% of the population over 65 has been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s, but if you live past the age of 85 your likelihood of developing this disorder increases to 50%.

While so far there has been limited success in reversing the damage caused by this disease, it may be possible to prevent or slow down the degeneration by ensuring you have enough choline in your system to produce this all-important neurotransmitter.

Choline Benefits

The benefits of Choline supplementation are said to include improved brain health and improved intellect. Clinical studies have long established that getting enough of this nutrient makes it easier to remember and keeps your mental facilities sharp later in life.

However, there are a number of additional “off-label” effects reported by users who take Choline sources. Certain forms of this compound are even touted as brain boosters or smart drugs (known to the scientific community as “nootropics”).

Below are a selection of the purported positive effects as reported in Choline reviews, testimonials, and experience logs online:

• Support for memory retention
• Enhanced memory recall
• Improved learning & plasticity
• Increased communication in the brain
• Improved mental energy & reduces fatigue
• Better creative thought & problem solving
• Improved logical reasoning
• Enhanced verbal processing
• Better focus & concentration
• Faster reactions & thought processing
• Elevated mood
• Insomnia prevention and improved REM sleep
• Headache prevention
• Reduced ADHD & ADD symptoms

Choline Research

Research into the cognitive enhancement benefits of Choline has been largely inconclusive. While some studies show benefits for memory, mental performance, and athletic performance, other studies do not.

There have been more definitive studies on the benefits of two specific Choline supplements – Alpha GPC and Citicoline (CDP Choline). These natural phospholipid forms of choline show better bioavailability and improved capacity for crossing the Blood-Brain Barrier then lower quality sources, which may explain the increased efficacy.

In one research study that examined the effects of choline administered to rats, this nutrient was found to improve Acetylcholine synthesis in the hippocampus and striatum of the brain. These areas are closely linked to memory and consciousness.

When Acetylcholine was artificially depleted in cholinergic neurons, administering an exogenous source of this nutrient was found to increase the ability of these neurons to synthesize acetylcholine and counteract the depletion.

This was done by increasing the use of lipid-bound choline molecules in the brain and not by increase free choline levels.

In another study, chronic (long-term) administration of a choline supplement to rats was found to increase the number of receptor binding sites for Acetylcholine in the brain.

After 30 days of consuming a diet supplemented with choline chloride, the rats shows a greater density of nicotinic acetylcholine binding sites on neurons in their brain. This means that using a choline supplement actually increased the number of receptors for the acetylcholine neurotransmitter in supplemented rats.

Another study looked at the effects of combining choline with two other popular brain supplements: uridine and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid).

In this study, researchers found this combination increased levels of synaptic membranes and dendritic spines within the rodent brain. This result suggests that these three supplements may improve the growth of new neural structures in the brain and promote neuroplasticity.

Other trials have shown improvements to spatial memory from administering choline to rats. Many of these studies have focused on the effects of choline as a pre- and post-natal supplement.

In one 1988 study published in Developmental Psychobiology, it was found that rats given a perinatal choline supplement showed improved performance and accuracy on working memory and reference memory tasks. This was attributed to a “long-term enhancement of spatial memory capacity and precision”

Some human studies have shown benefits while others have not. Many of the studies that do show positive effects use Alpha GPC or CDP Choline instead of choline since these formulations show an improved ability to be taken up by brain cells when administered as an oral supplement.

While these results are meaningful, more research is needed to determine the efficacy of choline supplements for improving memory and cognitive function in humans. Choline supplements are available in the USA as health supplements only, and the FDA has not approved Choline as a drug to prevent or treat any conditions.

Choline for Athletic Performance

Some research studies have looked at the effects of Choline for improving athletic performance, stamina, and recovery in bodybuilders. While Alpha GPC has shown performance-boosting traits and is demonstrated to increase Human Growth Hormone (HGH) levels following exercise, choline does not demonstrate these effects.

In research trials, plasma choline levels have been observed to drop significantly after prolonged exercise. However, administering choline via a lecithin supplement does not result in any change to performance. A similar result was reported when repeating this study with triathletes.

There has been some research showing that choline may support weight loss effects and promote a reduction in body fat percentage. It may also inhibit weight gain when consuming a diet with a calorie surplus, while also reducing fat build-up in the liver.

However, these results are preliminary and large-scale clinical trials would be needed to better understand the potential effects of choline for weight loss.

Choline Foods

What can you do to ensure you are getting enough of this nutritional compound from your diet? The daily adequate intake for Choline is 550 mg for men and 425 mg for women, but for purposes of enhancing your brainpower it is typically advised to take more than this amount.

This is because much of the choline in foods that you eat does not get fully absorbed or does not make it all the way to your brain. In 2004, the USDA conducted an analysis of the choline quantities in various foods that make up the typical North American diet.

Some choline-rich foods include beef liver, whole eggs, navy beans, ground beef and cauliflower. Paradoxically, in many cases if you were to use foods as your only source of choline you would end up exceeding certain dietary recommendations for cholesterol and caloric intake in order to get enough of this nutrient.

Choline Sources

Many individuals find it necessary to turn to choline supplements in order to satisfy their daily requirements or to use as cognitive enhancers. But when it comes to brainpower, not all types of choline are equal.

You can buy choline sources in several different formats with varying degrees of potency and varying benefits for intellectual function.

The higher quality sources are identified as having better Acetylcholine conversion while some of the lower quality supplements may give you large choline dosages but do not actually end up being synthesized into Acetylcholine.

This has to do with how your body processes and absorbs the different types of supplements. While some of these supplements are highly bioavailable, others may not be fully absorbed into your bloodstream.

Another point of differentiation is whether the supplement in question can cross the blood-brain barrier. This is a physiological border used to separate circulating blood from the central nervous system and brain tissue.

In order for any supplement to be effective at promoting increased brain function, it must have good transportation across this barrier so as to be taken up by brain cells. Only a small class of substances are able to cross this barrier which forms part of our body’s natural defense system.

For example, Acetylcholine itself cannot cross this barrier but must be synthesized in the brain. This is why you have to use an Acetylcholine precursor as opposed to taking supplements that contain this compound directly.

While there are some choline supplements that are known to penetrate this barrier, others may be less efficient and therefore not ideal for cognitive enhancement purposes. What is the best Choline source to use?

Choline Bitartrate

Choline Bitartrate is one of the most common forms that this nutrient is sold in, but it also happens to be the lowest in quality and effectiveness. Most Choline powder or pill products that you find on the market contain the bitartrate format. This compound is essentially Choline bound to bitartrate, a which is a salt formed from tartaric acid.

While Choline Bitartrate is very affordable, it is not highly bioavailable and has poor transit across the blood brain barrier. This is because in order for choline to make it across this barrier, it has to be converted into a lipid form in the liver.

Any of the salt versions such as Choline Chloride or Choline Citrate are very poor at this and therefore not ideal for Acetylcholine conversion.

Phosphatidylcholine

Phosphatidylcholine is a slightly better option with higher Acetylcholine conversion because it already is attached to a lipid molecule when absorbed into the body.

You will find Phosphatidylcholine naturally in certain foods such as soy beans, fish, and meat. It is also found in the form of Soy Lecithin supplements which are used by vegetarians who typically need to use dietary additives in order to get enough choline.

Soy Lecithin is composed of between 2.5% to 9.5% choline while phosphatidylcholine has 13% concentration. While more effective than Choline Bitartrate, this is still not enough to provide significant cognitive enhancement effects on its own.

CDP Choline (Citicoline)

One better option is to use CDP Choline, or Citicoline, which is far more potent than the previous two options. The lipid structure of this supplement gives it excellent penetration of the blood brain barrier and it contains several of the materials needed by our brain to maintain cell walls and surrounding structures.

Citicoline is currently used as an Alzheimer’s and ADD/ADHD treatment in many countries around the world.

Not only does CDP Choline have a positive effect on memory, it also stimulates higher energy levels and increases dopamine receptor density to improve focus and mood.

Citicoline also improves blood flow to the brain which can promote better oxygen supply and glucose metabolism. This is the most popular form of Choline supplement sold today and most users will experience substantial brainpower boosting with this alone or in a nootropic stack.

Alpha GPC Choline

While most people are satisfied with CDP Choline, there is still one better option with even greater Acetylcholine conversion. The highest quality source of this nutrient is Alpha Glycerylphosphorylcholine – more commonly known as Alpha GPC.

This version is more than twice as strong as CDP Choline and is often more cost effective since you can use a smaller dosage to get the same effects. Alpha GPC Choline is also a natural compound, found in high levels in human breast milk.

It can have a powerful impact on cognition, intellect, memory and reasoning even when taken on its own, and it forms the basis of many of the most popular brain supplements out there today such as Alpha Brain by Onnit Labs. Alpha GPC is also much faster acting than Citicoline, providing the same benefits in a shorter period of time due to how it is metabolized.

Choline Dosages and Side Effects

Choline is considered to be a safe nutrient with very low occurrence of side effects and no serious risk factors. It has been given GRAS status (Generally Regarded as Safe) by the US Food and Drug Administration. This means that it has been adequately shown to be safe under the conditions of its intended use, according to FDA standards.

Natural Medicines also rates Choline as Likely Safe when used according to appropriate dosage guidelines. However, excessively high dosages (greater than 3.5 grams per day) are considered to be Possibly Unsafe.

Proper dosage is dependent on many different factors including age, weight, sex, and personal sensitivities. It is always recommended that you speak with your doctor to determine the best dosage for your personal needs. The below dosage recommendations are general guidelines only, and your personal dosage may be different.

In children, Choline is considered Likely Safe at appropriate dosages. The suggested dosage for children between 1-8 years of age is under 1 gram daily. For children between 9-13 years of age, 2 grams daily is the maximum recommended dosage. For children between 14-18 years of age, the maximum dosage should be 3 grams of choline per day.

Choline is also considered Likely Safe in women who are pregnant and breastfeeding. Dosages of up to 3.5 grams per day for women 19 years and older are not likely to cause negative side effects in most users, according to the Natural Medicines database.

Choline is generally very well tolerated when taken at appropriate dosages. In some cases, if you exceed the recommended choline dosage you may experience diarrhea, nausea, fatigue, high blood pressure, and excessive perspiration. The higher the dosage used, the greater the risk of adverse effects.

Additional negative side effects reported can include low blood pressure, steatorrhea (undigested fat in the stool), nausea, vomiting, excess salivation, constipation, appetite suppression and anorexia, dizziness, feelings of agitation, increased sweating, insomnia, and headaches. These side effects are rare when appropriate dosages are taken, and typically only may occur when daily dosages exceed 3.5 g.

High dosages should not be used by patients diagnosed with trimethylaminuria, Parkinson’s disease, or kidney or liver disease.

Some people develop a symptom called fish odor syndrome due to an individual inability to metabolize trimethylamine which is produced when eating foods with Choline. You can prevent this side effect by using a high quality supplement like Alpha GPC or Citicoline or by reducing your intake to suggested dose levels.

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