Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) Health Benefits, Doses and Safety

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is a polyunsaturated, omega-3 fatty acid that acts as a docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and prostaglandin-3 precursor.

EPA is found in fish oil supplements derived from oily fish such as mackerel, herring, salmon and sardines. [1] Phytoplankton, edible seaweed and human breast milk also contains detectable amounts of EPA.

Oily fish are not natural producers of EPA. Instead, they must consume prey fish or algae that possess concentrated levels of EPA and omega-3 fatty acids. Although the human body is capable of converting alpha-linolenic acid to EPA, the converted form of EPA has a lower rate of absorption by the body than fish-derived EPA. [2]

Once in the body, eicosapentaenoic acid metabolizes to produce hormone-like substances called eicosanoids. These compounds are responsible for regulating cell growth, muscle activity, blood clotting and secretion of various hormones.

Eicosanoids derived exclusively from eicosapentaenoic acid reduces production of series-2 prostaglandin [3] while promoting another series of prostaglandins beneficial to cardiovascular health. Omega-3 fatty acids are also important for forming cell membranes and for correcting an imbalance between omega-6 and omega-3 fats in the typical Western diet

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• Balanced ratio of EPA to DHA Omega-3's
• Support cardiovascular and brain health
• Improve mood, focus and nerve transmission

Eicosapentaenoic Acid Food Sources

The top food sources of EPA are [4]:

1. Menhaden
2. Salmon
3. Sardines
4. Herring
5. Beluga whales
6. Mackerel
7. Cod liver oil
8. Red and black caviar (granular)
9. American shad
10. Seal oil (bearded or spotted seals)

Although omega-3 fatty acids are found in some seeds and nuts, only fish and other marine creatures contain long-chain fatty acids such as EPA and DHA. Farmed fish must therefore be given food that contains eicosapentaenoic acid sources (fish oil) to provide humans with the long-chain fatty acids essential for good health. [5]

Health Benefits of Eicosapentaenoic Acid

According to most literature investigating the health benefits of EPA and long-chain fatty acids, the mitigating effects of EPA on the cardiovascular system appear the most prominent and definitive.

Consumption of three to 20+ grams of eicosapentaenoic acid and DHA daily have been shown to reduce triglycerides/blood lipids, inhibit platelet aggregation, increase flexibility of blood vessels and alleviate inflammation. [6]

In addition, diets rich in EPA and other PUFAs (polyunsaturated fatty acids) appear to modify the genetic expression of metabolic rates and fat tissue. The ability of eicosapentaenoic acid to reduce triglyceride levels is thought to stem from PPAR (peroxisome proliferator activated receptor) mediation.

This mediation may also explain why people consuming oily fish and/or eicosapentaenoic acid supplements experience better insulin resistance and less instances of liver disease, specifically hepatic steatosis. [7]

Pregnancy and EPA

Supplementation of EPA and DHA during pregnancy has been linked to longer gestation periods. Avoiding preterm delivery is essential to reducing neonatal health complications primarily involving lung immaturity. [8]

By suppressing production of prostaglandin E2 and F2a, eicosapentaenoic acid supported by DHA seems to reduce uterine inflammation, a condition possibly associated with preterm birth.

Dementia, Alzheimer’s and EPA

Epidemiological studies spanning the last decade have found that high intakes of EPA and DHA may correlate to a reduced risk of Alzheimer’s and/or dementia. [9]

One seminal study conducted by Kalmijn et al in 1997 involved over 5000 subjects aged 55+ who were given standardized screenings for dementia.

Two and a half years after the screening, subjects were questioned extensively about their dietary habits.

Results indicated that those including several servings of fish in their diet weekly exhibited lower tendencies for dementia/Alzheimer’s incidences than non-fish eating subjects. [10]

Mental Illness and EPA

Evidence exists that levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids and phospoholipids are abnormal in people diagnosed with schizophrenia. [11] To investigate the possibility that EPA and DHA may counteract this abnormality, researchers treated schizophrenic patients with either EPA, DHA or a placebo.

Results showed that eicosapentaenoic acid supplements were superior to docosahexaenoic acid supplements and the placebo in reducing positive symptoms of schizophrenia. [12]

Coinciding with a significant increase in depression and mood disorders is the steady decline in dietary EPA and other polyunsaturated fatty acids over the past century.

This phenomenon specifically targets western countries where rapid industrialization has led to higher consumption of prepackaged foods and a definitive reduction in fresh seafood consumption. Researchers consider this link between depression and lack of sufficient dietary EPA compelling. [13]

Side Effects of Eicosapentaenoic Acid Supplements

Most people tolerate EPA supplements well and report only minimal side effects such as diarrhea/loose stools, nausea, upset stomach, “fishy” breath and belching. However, higher doses of EPA/fish oil supplements may inhibit blood coagulation and increase risk of bleeding.

Some evidence exists that fish oil EPA may reduce natural killer cell activity [14] which could negatively affect the immune system and increase the risk for cancer and viral infections. [15]

Since EPA may interfere with blood coagulation, people taking anti-platelet/anti-coagulant medications should use caution when taking an eicosapentaenoic acid supplement.

Recommended Dosage for EPA Supplements

Combined with docosahexaenoic acid and marketed as fish oil, EPA supplements typically come in gel capsule form, with each capsule generally containing 120 mg of DHA and 180 mg of EPA.

Therefore, taking one of these capsule three times a day would fill the daily recommended dosage (0.9 grams) for fish oil. [16] In addition, EPA/DHA capsules may have negligible amounts of vitamin E to prevent spoilage. [17]

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